Rhetoric

The power of rhetoric

Rhetoric is a way of using language to persuade or influence the thoughts and actions of other people through the structure, flow, rhythm, intonation, content and style that is used. For example, people working in law, sales, marketing, coaching, politics, leadership, etc., use the power of rhetoric to have an impact on the feelings of others, to "score points" or manipulate their thinking.

Aristotle and rhetoric

Aristotle identified three types of rhetoric that reflect what it means to be human - deliberative, judicial and epideictic language.

1. Where rhetoric is used deliberately in an attempt to persuade someone to come to the same conclusions as you, or to react in the way you want - say in a political debate or marketing presentation. For example, "If it is good for X to do Y, then it must be good for all X's to do Y". The objective being to enhance a sense of happiness or satisfaction.

2. You will find rhetoric used in a judicial context to amplify the justice or injustice of an accusation. This is done by relating a story, using metaphor or asking rhetorical questions. For example "What never? Never ever?" or "Are you really expecting us to believe that ?"

3. Rhetoric can also work in an epideictic way, where extravagant praise (or blame) is used to get a big emotional impact at funerals or in retirement speeches. For example, when people said about Steve Jobs "We will never see the likes of Steve's genius again in our lifetime" or "I know I can speak for everyone in saying that Steve will always have a special place in all our hearts."

Creating an argument - the opposite of dialogue

When you want to build on a diverse range of views to discover new opportunities or ways of approaching a problem then conversations take the form of a dialogue. The art of rhetoric is different in that are seeking to win others over to your point of view. The best arguments tend to be presented in five main parts or stages: invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery. They are considered to be the classic way in which a speech or presentation is put together for a persuasive effect.

1. Inventing an argument - in this part you come up with points and facts that make a case for and against your proposition. You can then explore the strongest arguments to support your case and can counter the ones that dopn't. This process is helped by appealing to the interests, values and prejudices of the listeners.

Aristotle identified three different types of argument - ethos, logos and pathos.

Ethos highlights the excellent reputation, recognised expertise and good character of people supporting your case - including yourself. They should appeal to the common assumptions of your audience. For example, professionals respect fellow professionals, the public respect someone who they perceive to be 'one of them' and respect for arguments that are commonly held to be right and expected, such as moral and ethical positions or the views of people with qualifications and relevant experience.

Logos focuses on what sounds reasonable, sensible and sincere. It's the 'ground' on which your argument stands. It builds the argument with each statement supporting and reinforcing the next in the mind of the listener. For example, "Everyone knows how often the busees run in your area. I put it to you that having lived in the area for 20 years and traveled on the bus everyday to work how would you not know that the buses in your area run every 30 minutes." You are arguing here with probabilities, analogies, assumptions, inferences and generalisations to shape the reasonable conclusions that can be drawn from the evidence presented. It's about demonstrating that your conclusion is "beyond reasonable doubt".

Pathos plays to the emotions of people, enticing people to feel the same way as others about a particular event. It could take the form of an emotional appeal to imagine how others would feel in the same situation. It has to be shared to be effective. It is often linked to the skills of rapport where you first match the feelings of the audience and then lead them to feel differently about the situation. Humour can be a useful tool in moving someone from empathy to sympathy. You find pathos in the way charities appeal for donations and lawyers plead for clemency.

2. Arranging a story - is the part where you shape your argument and give it a beginning to grab your attention, a middle and an end where you restate your strongest points and justify your conclusion. Aristotle believed the middle bit should contain the narrative where you set out the points at issue and the proof where you make the arguments to support your case. The proof can be broken down into a part where you disagree with your opponents, a part where you set out supporting arguments and another part where you breakdown and destroy your opponents arguments.

3. Hitting the right style - which follows the teachings of Cicero, identifies three kinds - high (grand), middle and low (plain) style. High style is seen to be over-fastidious or stuffed with grand metaphors. This style can be seen in the works of Shakespeare and George Orwell. It is often found at the end of a speech to stir up an audience and prepare them for action. The plain style is valued for its clarity, brevity and its effect on sincerity.

Clearly one type of style will not fit every situation. Maintaining a sense of decorum is obviously important. Adopting the language style of your audience is a way of gaining acceptance and not creating resentment. Being over pompous or boastful will not go down well in the wrong setting. Rhetoric is most effective when it does not stand out. This means developing the art of "reading" your audience and matching their language style. Taking on the tone and intonation of the Chinese language when talking to a Chinese speaker enables you to gain greater acceptance and connection.

Jokes, sensitively chosen, can be a powerful rhetorical tool. Be careful though as they rely on all parties have shared assumptions. Repetition is a style adopted to make what you have to say more memorable. Watch the video below of the poet David Whyte to get an idea of the power of repetition. Notice the way the sound of speech works on the mind and emotions at a deeper level of meaning.

Politicians are very good at controlling the tense in which they are speaking to take the mind in a new direction. This power of redirection happens when talking about past events becomes uncomfortable and they start speaking about what it could mean for a better future. Or when arguing about future aims you seek to undermine someone by finding something they have done in the past that could embarrass them. When past and the future arguments are weak, the conversation shifts to the bigger picture or principles that nobody could argue with or which connects people in a common cause. Sometimes just giving the impression that you are lost for words can send a powerful message.

4. Committing to memory - means not just being clear about what you want to say, but also how you are going to say it. Speaking seemingly 'off-the-cuff' is powerful as it comes across as spontaneous and authentic, even though it has been well rehearsed. What you are saying is perceived to be fresh from your thoughts. This is impressive, particularly at the beginning of a presentation. If you are well prepared, what you know you need to say will spring to mind with the smallest of prompts and the minimum of effort.

Memory is aided by travelling through well known territory to locate words and images in time and in a place. When searching for quotes in a book, you may not remember the page, but you will recall its position on the page. Linking facts to places in a well known story aids the memory. People who can rember people's names always come across as impressive.Using a Mnomenic to put things in order is also useful. For example "Read Out Your Good Book In Verse" canhelp you remember the colour order in a rainbow. You could also just keep notes.

5. Delivering the meaning - with a balance of ethos, logos and pathos is always goin to impress. To be effective you must constantly observe the reactions of your audience as you deliver. Do they appear bored? Can they hear you clearly? Are they looking puzzled? What are they laughing at? Are there embarrassing silences? Constant monitoring is vital as you need to deal with the situation as you find it and adjust things if it's not working. These are essentially acting skills used to enhance your authentic self, not impersonate others. You must communicate true feeling and good intention.

Delivery involves controlling the pace, intonation and volume of your voice, physical posture and gestures, words that are clear and which the audience can relate to, as well as an attitude or mood state that is relaxed, composed, warm and curious. Learn to use pauses to allow your listeners time to think and you time to hold their attention. The words should be close to daily speech but spoken slightly slower than ordinary conversation. Be careful to observe and eliminate any mannerisms that may distract the audience from your message. Use hands and fingers to reinforce important issues, the sequence of events, contrasting key points, etc. Do not wave your arms around or put your hands in your pocket or by your side. Nothing must look or feel contrived.

Rhetoric

The power of rhetoric

Aristotle and rhetoric

Creating an argument - the opposite of dialogue

Further Reading

A WAY OF SEEING

A WAY OF THINKING

A WAY OF BEING